Soluble compounds formed during fermentation, including lactic acid, -aminobutyric acid (GABA), D-phenyl-lactate, and indole-3-lactate, contributed to this protective effect by increasing TEER and reducing paracellular permeability to FITC-dextran (Wei and Marco, 2025)
In the early stage of OA, the subchondral bone exhibits increased remodeling activity, characterized by elevated bone turnover, microstructural deterioration, and a shift from bone resorption to formation
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