Furthermore, the ileum of germ-free and antibiotic-treated mice showed lower Glp1r gene expression compared to controls, with higher incretin effect resistance (68)
Importantly, they can also convert indigestible carbohydrates into short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), which in turn activate specific G protein-coupled fatty acid (FFA) receptors, thereby promoting the secretion of peptide hormones from the enteroendocrine cells [106, 107]
Signs of Vitamin B12 Deficiency Vitamin B12 deficiency can develop gradually, and symptoms may range from mild to more noticeable
References Pasqua M, et al
Fatty acid oxidation in cell peroxisomes also generates succinate, which can also enter this cycle and offers another path for lipids in cell metabolism [94] (Fig