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The concept of the circadian rhythmicity in the human secretion of renin and aldosterone, under the influence of posture, sodium intake and age, is well known from decades ( Hyperglycemia and RAAS in the Kidney High glucose levels in the proximal tubule can cause increased reabsorption of glucose, sodium and water, favored by the upregulation of SGLT2 activity and expression of Na-K-2Cl cotransporter, acquaporin-2, and urea transporters, as reported in diabetic patients ( Accumulated evidence has shown that the RAAS is no longer considered to act just as an endocrine system, but also as a paracrine, autocrine and intracrine system
doi: 10.3389/fnut.2019.00016 84 Richardson-AndrewsRC
doi: 10.3389/fendo.2025.1664604 Received 12 July 2025 Accepted 05 September 2025 Published 23 September 2025 Volume 16 - 2025 Edited by Martina Tomi, Merkur University Hospital, Croatia Reviewed by Michael Telias, University of Rochester Medical Center, United States Mohammad Sarif Mohiuddin, New York University, United States Updates Copyright 2025 Chen, Zhang, Li, Wang, Tao, Xue and Wang
Injectable bioavailability is approximately 80%, meaning roughly 80% of the injected dose reaches systemic circulation